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Describe the Influences of Family on the Way People Become Gay or Straight

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Field of sexual orientation enquiry

The relationship betwixt the surroundings and sexual orientation is a subject of enquiry. In the study of sexual orientation, some researchers distinguish environmental influences from hormonal influences,[1] while other researchers include biological influences such every bit prenatal hormones every bit role of ecology influences.[2]

Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is the outcome of a circuitous coaction of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences.[1] [3] [iv] They do not view sexual orientation as a option.[1] [3] [5]

Hypotheses for the bear on of the mail-natal social surroundings on sexual orientation are weak, particularly for males.[half dozen] In that location is no substantial testify which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences influence sexual orientation,[7] [8] just research has linked childhood gender nonconformity and homosexuality.[9] [10]

Sexual orientation compared with sexual orientation identity [edit]

Often, sexual orientation and sexual orientation identity are not distinguished, which can bear upon accurately assessing sexual identity and whether or not sexual orientation is able to modify; sexual orientation identity tin modify throughout an individual's life, and may or may not align with biological sexual practice, sexual behavior or bodily sexual orientation.[eleven] [12] [13] Sexual orientation is stable and unlikely to change for the vast majority of people, simply some inquiry indicates that some people may feel modify in their sexual orientation, and this is more likely for women than for men.[fourteen] The American Psychological Association distinguishes betwixt sexual orientation (an enduring allure) and sexual orientation identity (which may change at whatsoever betoken in a person's life).[fifteen] Scientists and mental health professionals generally practise not believe that sexual orientation is a selection.[1] [5]

The American Psychological Clan states that "sexual orientation is not a option that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the outcome of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and testify suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality".[3] They say that "sexual orientation identity—not sexual orientation—appears to modify via psychotherapy, support groups, and life events".[15] The American Psychiatric Association says that individuals may "become aware at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual" and "opposes whatever psychiatric treatment, such as 'reparative' or 'conversion' therapy, which is based upon the supposition that homosexuality per se is a mental disorder, or based upon a prior assumption that the patient should modify his/her homosexual orientation". They do, however, encourage gay affirmative psychotherapy.[16]

Prenatal environment [edit]

The influence of hormones on the developing fetus has been the most influential causal hypothesis of the development of sexual orientation.[6] [17] In simple terms, the developing fetal brain begins in a "female" typical state. The presence of the Y-chromosome in males prompts the evolution of testes, which release testosterone, the primary androgen receptor-activating hormone, to masculinize the fetus and fetal brain. This masculinizing effect pushes males towards male typical brain structures, and almost of the fourth dimension, attraction to females. It has been hypothesized that gay men may have been exposed to too petty testosterone in central regions of the brain, or had different levels of receptivity to its masculinizing effects, or experienced fluctuations at critical times. In women, information technology is hypothesized that loftier levels of exposure to testosterone in key regions may increase likelihood of same sexual activity attraction.[6] [17] Supporting this are studies of the finger digit ratio of the correct hand, which is a robust marker of prenatal testosterone exposure. Lesbians on average, take significantly more masculine digit ratios, a finding which has been replicated numerous times in studies cross-culturally.[xviii] While direct effects are hard to measure for ethical reasons, animal experiments where scientists manipulate exposure to sex hormones during gestation tin also induce life long male person-typical behavior and mounting in female animals, and female-typical beliefs in male animals.[half-dozen] [18] [17] [xix]

Maternal allowed responses during fetal development are strongly demonstrated every bit causing male homosexuality and bisexuality.[20] Research since the 1990s has demonstrated that the more male sons a woman has, at that place is a higher chance of afterward born sons being gay. During pregnancy, male person cells enter a female parent's bloodstream, which are foreign to her immune arrangement. In response, she develops antibodies to neutralize them. These antibodies are then released on time to come male fetuses and may neutralize Y-linked antigens, which play a role in brain masculinization, leaving areas of the brain responsible for sexual attraction in the female-typical position, or attracted to men. The more than sons a mother has volition increase the levels of these antibodies, thus creating the observed congenial nativity gild event. Biochemical evidence to support this effect was confirmed in a lab study in 2017, finding that mothers with a gay son, particularly those with older brothers, had heightened levels of antibodies to the NLGN4Y Y-poly peptide than mothers with heterosexual sons.[20] [21] J. Michael Bailey has described maternal immune responses as "causal" of male homosexuality.[22] This effect is estimated to account for betwixt fifteen-29% of gay men, while other gay and bisexual men are thought to owe sexual orientation to genetic and hormonal interactions.[23] [twenty]

Socialization theories, which were ascendant in the 1900s, favored the idea that children were born "undifferentiated" and were socialized into gender roles and sexual orientation. This led to medical experiments in which newborn and infant boys were surgically reassigned into girls subsequently accidents such as botched circumcisions. These males were then reared and raised as females without telling the boys, which, contrary to expectations, did not brand them feminine nor attracted to men. All published cases providing sexual orientation grew up to exist strongly attracted to women. The failure of these experiments demonstrate that socialization furnishings does not induce feminine type behavior in males, nor brand them attracted to men, and that the organizational effects of hormones on the fetal encephalon prior to birth have permanent furnishings. These are indicative of 'nature', not nurture, at to the lowest degree with regards to male sexual orientation.[6]

The sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic surface area (SDN-POA) is a fundamental region of the brain which differs betwixt males and females in humans and a number of mammals (east.g., sheep/rams, mice, rats), and is caused by sexual activity differences in hormone exposure.[six] [xviii] The INAH-three region is bigger in males than in females, and is idea to be a critical region in sexual behavior. Dissection studies plant that gay men had significantly smaller sized INAH-3 than heterosexual males, which is shifted in the female typical direction, a finding first demonstrated by neuroscientist Simon LeVay, which has been replicated.[18] Dissection studies are rare, all the same, due to lack of funding and brain samples.[6]

Long-term studies of domesticated sheep accept plant that 6-8% of rams have a homosexual preference through their life. Dissection of ram brains also institute a similar smaller (feminized) structure in homosexually oriented rams compared to heterosexually oriented rams in the equivalent encephalon region to the man SDN, the ovine sexually dimorphic nucleus (oSDN).[24] : 107–110 The size of the sheep oSDN has also been demonstrated to exist formed in utero, rather than postnatally, underscoring the office of prenatal hormones in masculinization of the brain for sexual attraction.[19] [6]

Other studies in humans have relied on brain imaging technology, such as research lead by Ivanka Savic which compared hemispheres of the encephalon. This research found that straight men had right hemispheres 2% larger than the left, described every bit a minor but "highly significant difference" by LeVay. In heterosexual women, the two hemispheres were the same size. In gay men, the 2 hemispheres were also the same size, or sex atypical, while in lesbians, the correct hemispheres were slightly larger than the left, indicating a small shift in the male direction.[24] : 112

A model proposed by evolutionary geneticist William R. Rice argues that a misexpressed epigenetic modifier of testosterone sensitivity or insensitivity that affected development of the brain tin can explain homosexuality, and can best explain twin discordance.[25] Rice et al. propose that these epimarks normally canalize sexual development, preventing intersex weather condition in most of the population, but sometimes failing to erase beyond generations and causing reversed sexual preference.[25] On grounds of evolutionary plausibility, Gavrilets, Friberg and Rice argue that all mechanisms for sectional homosexual orientations likely trace back to their epigenetic model.[26] Testing this hypothesis is possible with current stem cell engineering science.[27]

Childhood gender nonconformity [edit]

Researchers take found childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) to exist the largest predictor of homosexuality in machismo.[nine] [10] [28] Gay men often report being feminine boys, and lesbian women ofttimes report being masculine girls. In men, CGN is a strong predictor of sexual orientation in adulthood, only this relationship is not as well understood in women.[29] [30] [31] Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which effects production of sex steroids, report more male typical play behaviors and show less heterosexual interest.[32] Bailey believes babyhood gender nonconformity to be a clear indicator that male homosexuality is an inborn trait – the result of hormones, genes and other prenatal developmental factors. Bailey says boys are "punished much more than rewarded" for their gender nonconformity, and that such behavior "emerges with no encouragement, and despite opposition", making it "the sine qua not of innateness". Bailey describes gender nonconforming boys as the "poster children for biological influences on gender and sexuality, and this is true whether or not we measure out a single biological marker".[33]

Daryl Bem proposed the "exotic becomes erotic" theory (EBE) in 1996. Bem argues that biological factors, such every bit prenatal hormones, genes and neuroanatomy, predispose children to carry in ways that do not arrange to their sex assigned at birth.[34] Gender nonconforming children volition oft prefer opposite-sex playmates and activities. These become alienated from their same-sex peer group. Every bit children enter boyhood "the exotic becomes erotic" where dissimilar and unfamiliar same-sexual activity peers produces arousal, and the full general arousal become eroticized over fourth dimension.[35] Wetherell et al. state that Bem "does non intend his model equally an absolute prescription for all individuals, just rather every bit a modal or average explanation."[34]

Two critiques of Bem's theory in the journal Psychological Review concluded that "studies cited by Bem and additional research show that Exotic Becomes Erotic theory is non supported by scientific evidence."[36] Bem was criticized for relying on a not-random sample of gay men from the 1970s and for cartoon conclusions that appear to contradict the original data. An "examination of the original data showed almost all respondents were familiar with children of both sexes", and that but 9% of gay men said that "none or simply a few" of their friends were male, and most gay men (74%) reported having "an specially close friend of the same sex" during grade school.[36] Further, "71% of gay men reported feeling dissimilar from other boys, just so did 38% of heterosexual men. The deviation for gay men is larger, but nevertheless indicates that feeling different from aforementioned-sexual activity peers was mutual for heterosexual men." Bem also best-selling that gay men were more than likely to have older brothers (the congenial nativity order effect), which appeared to contradict an unfamiliarity with males. Bem cited cantankerous-cultural studies which also "announced to contradict the EBE theory assertion", such equally the Sambia tribe in Papua New Guinea, who segregate boys from females during adolescence and ritually enforce homosexual acts among teenagers (they believe this is important for male growth potential), notwithstanding one time these boys reached machismo, simply a minor proportion of men connected to engage in homosexual behaviour - like to levels observed in the U.s..[36] LeVay has said while the theory was ordered in a "conceivable order",[37] : 65 the theory "lacks empirical support".[37] : 164 Social psychologist Justin Lehmiller stated that Bem'southward theory has received praise "for the manner information technology seamlessly links biological and environmental influences" and that there "is also some support for the model in the sense that childhood gender nonconformity is indeed ane of the strongest predicators of adult homosexuality", but that the validity of the model "has been questioned on numerous grounds and scientists have largely rejected information technology."[38]

In 2003, Lorene Gottschalk, a cocky-described radical feminist suggested there may exist a reporting bias linking gender nonconformity to homosexuality.[39] Researchers have explored the possibility of bias by comparing childhood home videos with self-reports of gender nonconformity, finding that the presence of gender nonconformity was highly consistent with self-reporting, emerged early and carried into adulthood.[10]

Family and upbringing [edit]

General [edit]

Hypotheses for the impact of the post-natal social environment on sexual orientation are weak, especially for males. There is no substantial evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences influence sexual orientation. Research has linked early childhood gender nonconformity and homosexuality; gay men, on average, accept been observed to be significantly more feminine from early childhood while lesbians are significantly more than masculine. Bisexuals besides report childhood gender nonconformity, but the difference is non as large as it is for gay men and lesbians. Early gender nonconformity is suggestive evidence that not-heterosexual orientations are dependent on early biological factors (genetic influence, prenatal hormones, or other factors during fetal development), since this sexual practice atypical beliefs emerges despite no encouragement from the social surroundings or parents. Parents and adults may react negatively to this gender nonconformity in their children, resulting in college rates of maltreatment. Early on hypotheses presumed that babyhood maltreatment experienced past some non-heterosexuals was the cause of non-heterosexual orientations, a theory which has non been supported by more thorough exam.[six]

Fraternal birth order [edit]

External video
video icon Dr. Ray Blanchard explains the fraternal nascence order effect, YouTube video

Since the 1990s, a big book of inquiry has demonstrated that each older biological brother a man has from the same mother increases his odds of being gay by 28–48%. This phenomena is known equally the fraternal nascence social club effect. The correlation is non plant in those with older adoptive or step brothers, leading scientists to attribute this to a maternal immune response to developing male fetuses, rather than a social effect. It has been estimated that betwixt xv% and 29% of gay men owe their orientation to this effect, although this may be higher when factoring in miscarriages of male fetuses (which are unable to be factored into calculations). In 2017, biochemical evidence for the effect was found which demonstrated that mothers of sons, peculiarly those with gay sons, had significantly higher levels of antibodies to male NLGN4Y proteins than mothers with no sons. Biologist Jacques Balthazart said that the finding "adds a meaning chapter to growing evidence indicating that sexual orientation is heavily influenced by prenatal biological mechanisms rather than by unidentified factors in socialization". The effect is an example of a non-genetic influence on male sexual orientation occurring in the prenatal surround.[xx] The effect does not hateful that all or about sons will be gay afterward several male pregnancies, but rather, the odds of having a gay son increase from approximately 2% for the first born son, to iii% for the second, v% for the tertiary (and becomes stronger with each successive male person fetus).[22]

Boys who were surgically reassigned and raised as females [edit]

Betwixt the 1960s and 2000, many newborn and infant boys were surgically reassigned as females if they were built-in with malformed penises, or if they lost their penises in accidents.[half-dozen] : 72–73 Many surgeons believed such males would be happier being socially and surgically reassigned female. In all 7 published cases that have provided sexual orientation data, the subjects grew upwards to exist strongly attracted to females. In Psychological Science in the Public Involvement, half-dozen scientists including J. Michael Bailey state this establishes a stiff case that male sexual orientation is partly established before birth:

This is the result we would wait if male person sexual orientation were entirely due to nature, and it is opposite of the result expected if information technology were due to nurture, in which case nosotros would expect that none of these individuals would exist predominantly attracted to women. They show how difficult information technology is to derail the development of male person sexual orientation by psychosocial means.

They further argue that this raises questions almost the significance of the social environment on sexual orientation, stating, "If one cannot reliably make a male man become attracted to other males by cut off his penis in infancy and rearing him as a girl, and then what other psychosocial intervention could plausibly have that effect?" It is further stated that neither cloacal exstrophy (resulting in a malformed penis), nor surgical accidents, are associated with abnormalities of prenatal androgens, thus, the brains of these individuals were male-organized at birth. Vi of the 7 identified as heterosexual males at follow up, despite being surgically contradistinct and reared as females, with researchers adding: "available testify indicates that in such instances, parents are deeply committed to raising these children every bit girls and in as gender-typical a manner as possible." Bailey et al. describe the occurrence of these sex reassignments as "the near-perfect quasi-experiment" in measuring the bear on of 'nature' versus 'nurture' with regards to male homosexuality.[half-dozen]

Childhood sexual abuse, molestation or early on experiences [edit]

The hypothesis that sexual abuse, molestation or early on sexual experience, causes homosexuality has been a subject of speculation just does not take scientific support.[vi] [37] : 20 Instead, enquiry has demonstrated that non-heterosexuals, specially men, are more likely to be targeted for childhood sexual abuse to their gender nonconforming behavior, which is visible from a young age and is a strong predictor of adult homosexuality. Every bit this gender nonconformity often makes them identifiable, they may be particularly susceptible to same-sex experiences even at young ages as they may exist recognized by older opportunistic individuals, or they may exist victimized past others who dislike gender nonconformity. Childhood sexual abuse often includes a variety of different experiences typically before age 18, not only early childhood. Gay males are more likely to appoint in age discrepant relationships during teenage years due to hiding their sexual orientation and a lack of available partners, which may be qualified as sexual abuse, but is not evidence of a "cause" of their sexual orientation.[6] : 83

Cross-cultural prove also speaks confronting the notion that a kickoff sex encounter influences a person'due south ultimate sexual orientation. Among the Sambia of New Republic of guinea, beginning between historic period 7 and 10, all boys are required to engage in ritual sexual contacts with older male person youths for several years before they take any access to females, even so the vast majority of these boys become heterosexual men,[37] : 20 while but a small number of males have homosexual orientations, at a similar level as establish in Western cultures.[33] : 130–131 Additionally, long term studies of students who attended single-sexual practice boarding schools, where homosexual behavior occurs at elevated rates, found that such students were no more likely to exist gay than students who did not attend such schools.[37] : 20

The hypothesis for females is that sexual corruption would make them balky to males, causing them to seek comfort with women, but that it would somehow make males attracted to the aforementioned sex, which has been described as contradictory.[40] At that place is evidence that female sexual orientation could be affected past external or social influences. Nevertheless, there are numerous other confounders that can distort research and that prevent any stiff conclusions beingness made. These include personality traits such as one'due south level of conjuration or propensity to gamble taking, which have been found to be heightened in studies of lesbians; this may make them more than susceptible to existence abused.[6] A 2016 review authored past vi experts in the fields of genetics, psychology, biological science, neuroscience and endocrinology concluded that they favored biological theories for explaining sexual orientation, and that, compared to males, "information technology would too be less surprising to us (and to others) to discover that social surroundings affects female person sexual orientation and related beliefs", simply "that possibility must be scientifically supported rather than assumed".[half-dozen]

A 2013 study titled "Does Babyhood Maltreatment Effect Sexual Orientation?" led past Andrea Roberts reported that sexual abuse may bear upon men and not women. According to neuroscientist Simon LeVay, a controversy arose because the determination relied on an unusual statistical technique and it is argued she did not employ this correctly.[37] : 20 This study has been strongly criticized for making unjustified assumptions in the statistical instrumental regression, and for using methods typically reserved for economics. A criticism by J. Michael Bailey and Drew Bailey says "Non merely do Roberts et al.'s results fail to provide support for the thought that childhood maltreatment causes adult homosexuality, the pattern of differences between males and females is opposite what should be expected based on better testify."[41] Bailey states that Robert's instrumental regression and analysis were "almost certainly violated" by the confounding gene of genes shared between parents and children (Roberts used parental traits as instruments in her analysis, which are heavily distorted past behavioural genetic furnishings for low and neuroticism, which children as well inherit).[41] [42] When decision-making for genetic confounders, the link between sexual corruption and adult non-heterosexuality in men can be reduced to nothing.[42] Farther, Bailey et al. fence that all prior enquiry has demonstrated that information technology would be the sexual orientation of females, not males, that may be responsive to psychosocial influences, and and so it is unlikely that sexual abuse would somehow affect men'south sexual orientation and not women's, farther demonstrating that their method was inappropriate and that the results are not evidence that sexual abuse affects sexual orientation. Bailey concludes that Roberts' conclusion poorly fits the feel of gay men, who usually feel aforementioned-sex attraction long before their get-go sexual experience, that there is "compelling evidence that male person sexual orientation is fixed early in evolution, probably before nascency and certainly earlier childhood adversity could plausibly impact it", and that "previous research is inconsistent with the hypothesis that childhood experiences play a pregnant causal role in adult sexual orientation, specially in men".[41] [42] Regarding human being evolution, no plausible mechanism has been provided for why men would answer to corruption past becoming homosexual.[40] [43]

In 2016, LeVay reported that some other enquiry grouping found evidence "supporting the original idea" that an increased rate of childhood sexual abuse amongst gay men is entirely due to being targeted for their childhood gender-nonconformist behaviour.[37] : xx [44] This research found that gay, bisexual, and straight men who were gender nonconforming in babyhood were equally as likely to study experiencing childhood sexual abuse, while gay, bi and straight men who were typically masculine in childhood were significantly less likely to report experiencing sexual abuse. Additionally, significant numbers of heterosexuals experience childhood sexual corruption, and yet grew up to be heterosexual. LeVay concludes that "the weight of the evidence does not back up the notion that babyhood abuse is a causal cistron in the development of homosexuality".[37] : 20

Other confounding factors also distort research, including heterosexuals underreporting abuse, which is a specially common result among heterosexual men, while non-heterosexuals may exist more likely to be honest near having experienced abuse in coming to terms with their aforementioned-sex allure.[half-dozen] : 83 Sexual minorities can also be victims of corrective rape (or homophobic rape), a hate criminal offence in which someone is sexually assaulted because of their perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. The mutual intended consequence of the rape, every bit seen past the perpetrator, is to plow the victim heterosexual or to enforce conformity with gender stereotypes.[45] [46] Additionally, studies relying on convenience samples can consequence in higher rates of abuse, which have express validity describing rates of corruption in the wider population.[47]

Babyhood sexual abuse, when defined as "sexual experiences with an adult or any other person younger than eighteen years when the private did not desire the sexual experience or was too young to know what was happening", is combining a number of different experiences, likely to have different causes and effects. This may include sexual experiences of children besides young to have understood what was happening, and the sexual experiences of late adolescents who understood those experiences but did non want them, as well as abusive experiences with the same sex and with the other sex.[vi] : 83

The American Psychiatric Association states: "...no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of babyhood sexual abuse".[48] Scientists in sexual orientation research favour biological theories, for which evidence has been building after a long-term failure to demonstrate the influence of the postnatal social surround on sexual orientation, and this is peculiarly and so for males.[6]

Chemical disruptors [edit]

Environmental compounds such as plastic softeners (phthalate esters), which are pervasive environmental chemicals with anti-androgenic effects may interfere with sexual differentiation of the man brain during prenatal development.[49] Researchers are investigating exposure to these endocrine disruptors during pregnancy and subsequently sexual orientation of offspring, although scientists circumspection that no conclusions can exist fabricated nonetheless.[49] [50] Historical records point homosexual people were present and recognized in many times, cultures and places prior to industrialisation.[6]

Between 1939 and 1960, around ii meg expectant mothers in the Usa and Europe were prescribed a synthetic estrogen known as diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the belief that it would prevent miscarriages. DES did non prevent miscarriage, just it reportedly increased the likelihood of bisexuality and homosexuality in the daughters of women given the drug.[17] [51]

Urban setting [edit]

In 1994, Edward Laumann'south report of sexual practices in the United States found that a higher proportion of people in urban and city environments report homosexual orientation than in rural areas. Withal the authors annotation this may largely driven by migration, as homosexual people move to urban environments for increased acceptance, and because cities provide visible gay and lesbian communities, particularly if they experience constrained by negative sanctions toward open homosexuality in their local social networks of friends and family. The authors also hypothesized that big cities could provide a congenial surroundings for the development and expression of same-gender interest, not out of deliberate choice, but that the environs provides increased opportunities for, and fewer sanctions against, the expression of same-gender allure.[52] [53]

Data scientist Seth Stephens-Davidowitz reported that the actual prevalence of gay men doesn't appear to vary between states in the U.S. because the pct of Internet porn searches that are for gay male porn are nearly the same in all states, about 5%. On this basis he believes migration of gay men to cities is overstated, and says that in states where at that place is a social stigma against homosexuality so that "many more than gay men are in the closet than are out".[54] [37] : 9

See also [edit]

  • Biology and sexual orientation
  • Demographics of sexual orientation
  • Homosexuality and psychology
  • Nature versus nurture
  • Sexual fluidity
  • Xenoestrogen

References [edit]

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_and_sexual_orientation

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